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APPLE GROWING. 

by 

W. H. LAWRENCE, A.B., B.S, M.S. 

Horticulturist and Plant Pathologist for the Hood River Apple Growers Fellow- 
ship Association. Formerly Superintendent Western Washington Experiment 
Station, Puyallup, Wash., and Plant Pathologist at Washington State Ex- 
periment Station. 



written specially for use in the 



Pacific 



Horticultural Correspondence 



School 



Portland, Oregon 



PACIFIC HORTICULTURAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL 

TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Introduction. 
Problems of the apple grower. Assisting the grower to solve the problems. 
The problem of distribution. (Pages 3-4.) 

Selecting a Section for Growing the Apple. 
Locate in an apple growing section. Apple products factories necessary. 
Shipping associations. Common and cold storage. Marketing. Labor problem. 
Roads and distance from market. Prices of land. Irrigation and rainfall. Social, 
religious and educational advantages. Financing the work. Intercropping. 
(Pages 4-6.) 

Selecting Land Suitable for Apple Growing. 
Types of soil. Air drainage. Rainfall. Seepage. Alkali. Winds. Snow- 
fall. Adaptablity of varieties. (Pages 6-8.) 

Preparing the Orchard Land. 
Clearing. Selecting and planting the nursery stock. The home orchard. 
Dwarfs. The commercial orchard. Varieties. Pollenizers. Arrangement. 
Planting table. Rectangular system. Hexagonal system. Quincunx system. 
Age of the tree for planting. Budded and grafted stock — preference. Inspec- 
tion of the trees before planting. Digging the holes for planting. Planting — 
spring or fall. (Pages 8-12.) 

Tending the Young Orchard. 
The dust mulch. Irrigation. Pruning. Crown gall and hairy root. Bud 
weevil. Grub worms. Flat-headed borers. Leaf eating insects. Apple scab. 
Aphides. Intercrops. Fillers. Drainage. Injury from snowfall. (Pages 12-16) 
Tending the Bearing Orchard. 
Labeling the trees. Clean cultivation. Cover crops. Irrigation. Plant food 
in the soil. Nitrogen. Phosphorus. Potassium. Calcium. Fertilizers— table. 
Pruning. Bracing. Top working. Thinning. Diseases and insect pests. Win- 
ter injury or rosette. Baldwin spot and dry rot. Fire blight. Crown gall. 
Facts concerning insects. Codling moth. Aphides. Red Spider. Apple thrips. 
San Jose scale. Crown rot. Anthracnose. Apple scab. Powdery mildew. 
Spraying calendar. Facts concerning spraying. (Pages 16-29.) 
Gathering and Storing the Fruit. 
Ladders. Picking utensils. Maturity of the fruit. Hauling and storing the 
fruit. Sorting. Grading. Storing. (Page 30.) 

Study Apple Growing. 
Secure literature helpful in the work of producing the apple. (Page 31.) 

Suggestions for Study. 

Read carefully each chapter or paragraph to find points treated — then return 
and carefully study several times the important points to fix them in your 
memory, with the object of taking the examinations later. 

Marking passages of special interest to you will enable you to refer to 
them easily and helps to fix them in your memory. 

The italics in this article are by the principal and are intended to call spe- 
cial attention to these passages, which should be carefully studied as an aid in 
•examinations and to fix these points in the memory. 

Copyright, 1913, 
By Pacific Horticultural Correspondence School. 

All Rights Reserved. im— 813 






v/* 



V 



APPLE GROWING. 

By W. H. Lawrence. 

Growing the apple to the perfection to which it may be grown 
under good orchard management is an art. Apple production is not 
so difficult, however, that good results may not be had by the per- 
son, who, though unfamiliar with this line of work, makes a study 
of apple orcharding and applies the principles of the business in his 
field management. The many unsolved and rapidly increasing 
problems make it necessary for every grower to keep in close touch 
with his work. In fact there are so many factors influencing the 
industry at this time that it will require the cooperation of all in- 
terested in the industry to place the business on a basis so that the 
returns will justify the production of the apple viewed from a fi- 
nancial point of view. 

The planting of large areas of land by development concerns 
and the sale of these young orchards to persons in many cases en- 
tirely unfamiliar with any phase of orcharding has brought about 
a condition presenting many and perplexing problems. A brief 
survey of these problems by an expert apple grower shows that it 
will take much careful work to solve even the more urgent of these 
problems. The first and perhaps the most important undertaking 
is the training of the inexperienced persons in possession of the 
property. One of the means through which much valuable service 
can be rendered is the paper dealing with the subject in a general 
way but giving sufficient information to be of direct and immediate 
value. Also to serve as a guide for a more extensive study, a study 
which every apple grower must make to be successful. 

The conditions at the present time (1912) are such as to give 
apple growing a decided check or set-back. This is true, at least 
in some of the sections where apple growing has been a profitable 
business. Present conditions indicate that marketing the fruit will 
ultimately be adjusted and apple production will become a more 
permanent and profitable occupation minus much of the speculative 
aspects now accompanying this line of work. By making a study 

t 



4 PACIFIC HORTICULTURAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL 

of the business of production and cooperating to the full extent in 
the marketing of the best apples as fresh fruit and the utilization 
of the poor grades in the preparations of the various products such 
as vinegar, cider, apple butter, etc., the problems of distribution 
can be solved. The demand made by the commission man and the 
consumer for certain varieties will soon inform the grower with 
reference to this point. The undesirable varieties may be top- 
worked to commercial ones. The trees now occupying unproduc- 
tive land will be dug up and the soil planted to crops to which it is 
adapted. In the neighborhoods where warehouses and factories 
take care of the entire output the soils suitable for apple production, 
no doubt, will be planted. In fact, a condition will be brought 
about so that the investor who becomes an apple grower and not a 
land speculator, will not only find this line of work profitable but as 
enjoyable as any line of farm work in which he might engage. 

SELECTING A SECTION FOR GROWING THE APPLE. 

It is not uncommon to note, in many advertisements concerning 
the sale of apple lands, that "this section will grow just as good 
apples as can be grown in HOOD RIVER." Unless such a section 
presents more than ordinary opportunities, and has been recognized 
as an apple producing section at least in a small way, it is unwise 
for a person who is unfamiliar with conditions desirable for apple 
growing, to invest in such a section until thoroughly informed rela 
tive to the future possibilities of said place. It is far more advis- 
able to engage in the industry in a section in which much success 
has been attained by those experienced in the business and the pro- 
ducts have also become well known. One should always bear in 
mind in selecting orchard land in any valley or section that there is 
not a single area in which there does not occur larger or smaller 
areas of land entirely unfit for growing the apple. Many times the 
desired information may be had by consulting an expert horticul- 
turist. 

At this time when poor distribution of the crop really threatens 
the industry, it is more than advisable to inquire into the conditions 
of the market relative to the demand and the sales of fruit grown 
in the section. When a majority of the trees are young, a high 
percent of the fruit will be extra fancy. It should be remembered 
that as the trees grow older the percent of poor grades will increase 



APPLE PRODUCTS FACTORIES NECESSARY— ASSOCIATIONS— STORAGE 5 

very rapidly. The cost of production will also increase. Such a 
condition requires that all the cheaper grades of fruit should be 
worked up as by-products in order to prevent their being placed up- 
on the market in competition with the better grades, and also to 
prevent a large loss since failure to use these inferior apples usually 
causes a loss equal to the running expenses of the year. 

The apple is easily influenced in keeping quality through de- 
layed storage. One cannot too strongly urge selecting a location in 
which common and cold storage facilities are available and a ship- 
ping association are doing an active and profitable business, also 
that a good healthy spirit of cooperation is present, as it will not be 
many years before all of the fruit to be handled to good advantage 
must be handled through cooperative marketing associations. 

Caring for the orchard and crop requires reliable help at cer- 
tain portions of the season and for this reason one should carefully 
consider available help during such a time. The person so situated 
as to make it difficult to secure help as needed will experience much 
trouble and perhaps financial loss. It will be most difficult for the 
apple grower with a small acreage who cannot afford steady work 
for the pickers for a considerable length of time. 

Remoteness from a warehouse or shipping center is perhaps as 
important a consideration as any, especially in sections where roads 
are rough and become almost impassable with the advent of winter 
rains. The distance from the point of delivery and the conditions 
through which the fruit must pass before delivery, usually deter- 
mines the limits of any location for growing fruit. This is particu- 
tarly true concerning the apple. 

Many people unfamiliar with the prices of farm lands, and a 
reasonable net return per acre for highly developed properties, have 
failed to carefully figure their investment before deciding upon a 
location. Many of the so-called apple lands, as well as good apple 
lands, have been sold for exorbitant prices. Such a mistake on 
the part of the buyer is a sad one. It will take much hard labor 
and management to recover on the investment and secure a reason- 
able income. 

Too often too little attention is paid to the amount of moisture 
available in a section. Large volumes of water are required to de- 
velop maximum crops of apples. In case the rainfall is light, mois- 



6 PACIFIC HORTICULTURAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL 

ture must be supplied. For this reason one should inquire care- 
fully concerning water for irrigation and the cost if the same is 
available. After having duly considered all of the above points one 
is prepared to look for land suitable for apple culture. 

In settling in a new locality often too little attention is paid to 
the social, religious and educational advantages. The family of 
growing children have their future before them and it is the duty 
of the parents to see that their advantages are at least reasonable. 

Lastly comes the matter of financing the business since apple 
growing is a business which requires as much fore-sight and man- 
agement as any line of work. Other than the purchase price of 
the land, if the orchard has not begun to produce returns that will 
meet all the expenses, provision must be made for an income until 
the orchard does produce a living. Inter-cropping often times is 
the most desirable undertaking. Some inquiry as to the kinds of 
inter-crops and market for the same may in many cases indicate 
the source for a livelihood. 

SELECTING LAND SUITABLE TO APPLE CULTURE. 

The types of soils, in which apples will grow and do remark- 
ably well, vary greatly. A loose, loamy type varying from four to 
six feet or more in depth underlaid with a good subsoil makes a most 
desirable soil. The subsoil should be of such a character as to re- 
tain large quantities of moisture, yet porous enough to admit of 
good drainage. In many localities certain areas at certain seasons, 
appear to be adapted to apple growing, yet at other times these 
same lands are found to be either extremely dry or contain too 
much moisture to give the most suitable conditions. 

Air drainage as well as soil drainage should be carefully con- 
sidered. Even the casual observer can quite readily determine this 
condition for himself if he remembers the fact that cold air collects 
in low places. Temperature records are Usually available which 
show the prevalence of frosty or freezing weather conditions dur- 
ing blooming time and later. In case orchard heating is necessary 
be sure to figure the value and cost. 

Determine if the rainfall is sufficient and that the soil will hold 
enough water to mature more than the average crop. The careful 
inspection of rainfall records will oftentimes give the desired in- 
formation relative to moisture supply. In considering this point it 



EXPOSURE — SEEPAGE CONDITIONS— ALKALI — WINDS 7 

should be remembered that the orchard after the first ten or twelve 
years must have larger quantities of water to mature maximum 
crops. Young trees while making a vegetative growth, usually 
find a sufficient quantity of water to meet their needs even in the 
soils of low water holding capacity. As the trees grow, however, 
the supply of moisture may not be sufficient to produce the necess- 
ary wood growth and mature the crop of fruit which old trees must 
bear in order to produce paying returns. 

The exposure of the land should be considered, especially if in- 
tercropping is to be practiced. A southerly exposure is a warmer 
slope and is better adapted to intercropping than other slopes. 

One serious mistake and oftentimes met with, is the failure to 
recognize seepage conditions. In localities where free water comes 
to the surface during the wetter portion of the season, it is not ad- 
visable to attempt to grow the apple unless the land is thoroughly 
drained. As a usual thing such types of soils are too compact. 
Where seepage conditions do occur it is generally recognized even 
in orchard sections that such soils should be utilized for growing 
forage crops. 

In many of the apple growing sections where irrigation is be- 
ing practiced, little attention has been paid to the presence of alka- 
li, in fact, it has been the more common custom for the real estate 
dealer to refrain from informing the embryo-apple grower concern- 
ing the presence and formation of alkali. Many purchasers, there- 
fore, have come into possession of areas in which alkali salts are 
accumulating at such a rate that it will not be long before the land 
is rendered unfit for apple production and possibly entirely unpro- 
ductive of agricultural plants. 

Seldom do prospective purchasers inquire concerning prevalent 
winds, drifting sands, etc. In some localities very good results 
have been obtained in growing wind breaks. This is advisable in 
localities in which the wind is too strong to permit young trees to 
make a normal, even top development. 

Information concerning elevations with reference to snowfall 
is seldom considered, yet in some localities where apple growing is 
gaining a foothold, the snowfall is so heavy that it is doubtful 
whether young trees can be brought into bearing owing to dam- 
ages wrought by heavy snowfalls followed by rapid thawing and 



8 PACIFIC HORTICULTURAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL 

freezing weather, conditions under which the snow settles, tear- 
ing off the branches and breaking down some of the trees. 

Information should also be sought relative to the maturity of 
standard varieties of apples at various elevations and exposures. 
This is a very important point since many of the varieties change 
in their nature at various elevations and exposures and may prove 
to be undesirable. 

PREPARING THE ORCHARD LAND. 

A very large proportion of the land upon which trees have been 
planted, has been cleared of sage brush or timber. It has been cus- 
tomary to clear the smaller tracts by hand grubbing, sometimes em- 
ploying powder and a stump puller in the heavier clearing, but do- 
ing a large proportion of the work by hand. Where the acreage 
cleared has been considerable, the more serviceable method has been 
through the use of powder and a donkey engine. When following 
this method it is the general plan to cut all standing timber, slash 
the undergrowth during June and later, and burning over the area 
just before the fall rains begin. By this method a very large pro- 
portion of the coarser material, as well as all of the finer, is des- 
troyed. Such refuse as can be handled by hand is gathered and 
burned; the stumps are then cracked by using small charges of pow- 
der after which the same are pulled and piled in large heaps for burn- 
ing. By using a powerful engine, well manned with a good crew of 
workers, this method is a good one if sufficient ready money is avail- 
able to meet the cash outlay necessary to operate such an outfit. 
For the man who has purchased a small tract for developing a small 
orchard, no method is more serviceable and inexpensive than the 
char-pit method of destroying stumps provided the type of soil is of 
the nature which admits following this method. The great advan- 
tage of this method is the small amount of cash necessary to do 
effective work at little more than an expense of time. 

In any of the methods followed it should be the aim to clear the 
land of all material, removing all of the stumps and as many of the 
small roots as possible. Thoroughly cleared land will produce a bet- 
ter orchard than poorly cleared land. A serious mistake is often- 
times made in planting the young trees in newly cleared soil which 
has not been stirred properly. In many cases these virgin soils are 
deficient in humus and nitrogen. Grown under such conditions young 



SELECTING AND PLANTING THE TREES 9 

trees do not make as vigorous and strong a growth as desired. An 
excellent plan to follow, and one which puts the land in the best 
condition, is, to grow a crop of vetch or clover, after which the 
ground may be prepared for planting the trees. The cover or shade 
crops grown may be cut for hay or turned under as a green manure. 

Selecting and Planting the Trees. 

The evil effects of planting a few trees of each variety that 
strikes ones fancy is being felt at the present time by the owner of 
the orchard in which promiscuous varieties were planted. Concern- 
ing the old system of planting the only use we can make of the same 
is in planting the home orchard. 

Selecting varieties for the home orchard is a comparatively easy 
task since the plan usually followed consists in figuring the space to 
be planted and then to select the most desirable of both early and 
late maturing apples that may meet ones fancy. The main point to 
be considered is the relative proportion of early or late varieties 
that will meet the requirements of the family. Where space does 
not admit of growing all the varieties desired, very satisfactory re- 
sults may be had in growing two or more varieties on the same top. 
In working over the tree the main thing to bear in mind is the rel- 
ative growth of the varieties. Small and slow growing varieties 
should be grouped. Since standard varieties come into bearing 
rather late it is desirable in case early fruit production is desired 
to secure semi-dwarf or dwarf forms of the standard sorts. These 
dwarf trees require more care and training than the standards, how- 
ever, but nevertheless, make desirable and profitable trees for the 
city lot or small ranch where space is a serious consideration. 

In preparing to plant the commercial orchard the first problem 
is the selection of varieties. One must consider the adaptability of 
the varieties to the types of soil and soil conditions as well as fore- 
cast their probable commercial value. Size, color, flavor and the 
actual span of life of the fruit in common and cold storage are points 
of serious consideration at this time in the development of a com- 
mercial orchard. 

In the older apple growing sections the selection of varieties is 
not difficult. A majority of the commercial varieties are represented 
by a few specimens which show their desirability and adaptability. 
In valleys like the Hood River or Wenatchee, certain varieties are 



10 PACIFIC HORTICULTURAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL 

recognized as profitable commercial forms. It would be unwise in 
planting in any such locality to attempt to grow quantities of other 
than standard sorts since it is necessary to have large shipments of 
every variety to secure good prices. 

The arrangement and number of varieties in an orchard must be 
determined after the area to be planted and varieties have been de- 
cided. Good information can be had from the growers relative to 
the adaptability of varieties as pollenizers for standard sorts where 
pollenizers other than commertial sorts are deemed advisable. Re- 
cent investigations have clearly demonstrated, that, while some var- 
ieties are self fertile, partially sterile or entirely so, all varieties set 
more and better fruit when fertilized by pollen other than their own, 
a fact particularly evident during such years as weather conditions 
are adverse to the setting of fruit. In planting, each variety should 
be planted in either two, four, six or more rows in a block in order 
to facilitate spraying, picking, etc. 

Since it is advisable to have two or more varieties growing in 
the same area, the foremost and important consideration is the 
selection of varieties that come into blooming at the same time or 
nearly so. The larger the orchard, the greater number of varieties 
and the trees of each variety, the less important the selection of 
close blooming sorts becomes. In the arrangements in large orchards 
the varieties that bloom at the same time should be placed in the 
same block. There is sufficient evidence to shaw that yellow and 
red sorts may be intermingled as the color of one does not influence 
that of the other enough to materially modify the color. 

Having selected the varieties and decided the proportions of 
each to plant one must decide which of the systems of planting to 
be followed and the distance apart to place the trees in order to 
determine the number of trees required to plant a given area. * 

The rectangular system, in which the trees are planted in rec- 
tangular squares, is the most common system employed. The ar- 
rangement admits of ease in intercropping while the trees are young 
and of cultivation and other care when larger. Should one decide 
to use this system, and especially where fillers are utilized or the 
trees are placed close together so that it will become necessary to 
remove a part of them at the time they come into heavy bearing, 

(Ed. Note— For table giving the number of trees and distance apart to plant an acre by each of 
the three systems in use see page 8 "Planting Fruit Trees" by H. C. Atwell, one of the articles used 
in this course. 



SYSTEMS OF PLANTING— SELECTING TREES 11 

great care should be taken to plan the work carefully or the removal 
of the fillers may give an arrangement of the remaining trees that 
is anything but desirable. 

The hexagonal system permits planting a larger number of trees 
per acre than the rectangular. This system is really based on the 
circle and the trees are planted in circles of six with a seventh at 
the center of the circle. This arrangement places the trees equally dis- 
tant apart and admits of equal exposure to light and air. Cultivation 
and spraying among large trees sometimes becomes rather difficult 
but on the whole the system is a fairly satisfactory one. 

The quincunx system is in some respects an ideal one. The ar- 
rangement allows a very large number of trees per acre and is 
therefore most desirable where fillers are used. This system differs 
from the rectangular in that the trees are in groups of five in rec- 
tangles or squares with a fifth tree at the center. 

In selecting trees for planting, one-year-old tops on a two or 
three year old root, are the most desirable. These whips should be 
four to six feet in height, about five-eighths or a little larger in di- 
ameter at the base and provided with well devoloped buds through- 
out. Great care should be taken by the planter to carefully exam- 
ine each tree in order to discard each one showing diseased condi- 
tion of the root system. Frequently trees free from disease of any 
kind are poorly developed and should be discarded with as much 
care. Inferior stock seldom produces desirable trees. There is a 
general neglect among persons engaged in various lines of apple 
growing to pay too little attention to the source of stock. Bud sticks 
and scion stock should be taken from healthy trees of known var- 
ieties and of known yield. This system will give as uniform a lot 
of trees as can be secured. 

It is very evident that budding is a more desirable practice in 
propagating trees than grafting, since budded trees are less suscep- 
tible to crown gall and hairy root. 

With respect to the inspection of trees for planting, it is desir- 
able to make the inspection at the time the trees are dug from the 
nursery rows. At this time the roots are fresh and bright and the 
diseased trees can be more readily discarded than at a later date. 
Too little attention is paid to protecting the roots at the time of 
digging, and thereafter until the trees have been set permanently 
in the orchard. Exposed as they sometimes are, it is certainly re- 



12 PACIFIC HORTICULTURAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL 

markable that more trees do not fail to grow or make a satisfactory 
growth. 

Digging holes for the trees is a very important matter. The 
holes should be large and the dirt well mixed in order to make a good 
seed bed for the young tree. In soils which have been utilized for 
growing grain and other crops or where the soil is heavy, the best 
results are obtained by mellowing the subsoil by using a part of a 
stick of low grade stumping powder. 

Planting may be done during the spring or autumn. Autumn 
planting is least advisable since in many cases it is impossible to se- 
cure well matured trees by the time planting should be done. Fall 
planting has an advantage, however, in that the soil becomes well 
firmed around the roots of the trees before the advent of growing 
weather. Before setting, the roots of the young trees should be 
carefully inspected and trimmed in order to remove all broken and 
mutilated ones. When the tree is placed the dirt should be packed 
firmly around the roots being well worked in among the root bran- 
ches. Very frequently trees have been planted by plowing them 
in, digging a small hole with a shovel or similar tool and packing 
the roots closely together or by standing them in the hole and filling 
in with loose dirt. Results can only be had by digging a large hole 
and carefully placing the dirt, taking care to firm the same around 
the roots as the planting is done. After the planting has been com- 
pleted, the top may be cut off about thirty inches from the ground. 
Topping at this height admits of a good distribution of scaffold 
branches. 

(Ed. Note — In nany sections trees are cut back to from 20 to 26 inches.) 

TENDING THE YOUNG ORCHARD. 

Immediately following the planting the ground around the 
trees should be stirred in order to form a dust mulch to conserve 
the moisture. Different types of soils require the use of different 
kinds of tools and different methods of handling. As a usual thing 
information concerning the best types of tools can be had by inquire- 
ing of an experienced orchard man. 

Usually, in irrigated districts, it is not necessary to irrigate 
young trees during the first season. Should the ground show a lack 
of moisture during planting or any time thereafter during the sum- 
mer, a light application of water should be made. It is a far better 



PRUNING 13 

practice to give young trees enough moisture to give them a good 
vigorous start than to allow them to stand still as they do under 
some conditions. The amount of water applied depends very largely 
on the water holding capacity of the soil to be irrigated, the length 
or rills, etc. 

Pruning. 

Various methods of pruning are practiced in the training of 
young trees. The more common one is to cut off all of the young 
branches not intended for scaffold branches shortly after they have 
grown a few inches in length. This allows the entire strength to 
be thrown into the remaining branches, thus increasing their length 
and diameter. The following spring the scaffold branches are cut 
back to twelve to fifteen inches to induce them to produce laterals. 
Another method, and one which works very well in the hands of 
an experienced pruner, is the method of saving nearly all of the 
wood growth by summer pruning. Under this method the branches 
are allowed to grow long enough and of sufficient diameter to show 
fairly well matured buds at which time these branches are cut back 
to the place where branching is desirable. Cutting at this time in- 
duces them to throw one or more branches. If one is fcrtunate 
enough to secure two or more branches, the method may be consid- 
ered a successful one. These secondary branches are trimmed back 
the following spring in order to induce them to fork at the points 
where branching is necessary to give the tree the proper shape. 

As usually practiced, the pruning is too severe, with a result 
that young trees do not come into bearing as soon as they might. 
Most of the pruning should be done during the first two years. Dur- 
ing this time cutting back should be severe enough to force the trees 
to produce the necessary shape,' afterward, however, pruning should 
be done at any and all times of the year when the work is necessary 
to train the trees as desired. It should be borne in mind that light 
cutting at different times of the season is far more desirable and 
gives better results than heavy cutting at any time of the year,, 
either winter or summer. 

Pests and Diseases. 

Attention has been called to the fact that all young trees when 
planted should be free from disease. After planting the only pest 
apt to do serious damage to the root of the young tree is the gopher. 



14 PACIFIC HORTICULTURAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL 

When the land is thoroughly cleared and especially where consider- 
able powder has been used, few or no gophers appear except around 
the edges of the field. These places become infested by animals 
entering the field from adjoining tracts. The only effective method 
of getting rid of these pests is by trapping or poisoning, or both. 

A very injurious insect pest known as the bud weevil has done 
considerable injury in some of the young orchards and nurseries. 
It is believed that the greater number of these insects climb up the 
tree. A very successful method of protecting the trees is to place 
pieces of tin around the stems near the ground in order to prevent 
them from going up the stem; the smooth surface of the tin does 
not allow the insect to crawl up it. Topping newly set trees after 
the weevil quits work is an effective way to save the lower buds from 
which the scaffold branches may be developed, since only the upper- 
most buds are destroyed by this pest, Tanglefoot placed on a strip 
of cloth or paper placed around the tree will also prevent the weevil 
from climbing up the tree. 

In poorly cleared and newly cleared land, grub worms are some- 
times very abundant. When such is the case it is necessary to re- 
move the dirt around the crown and main roots of the young trees, 
and collect the worms, which work principally on the outside eating 
away the bark and young wood. 

Flathead borers which are rather common in many sections espec- 
ially adjacent to timbered areas, can be kept out of the young trees by 
placing collars of paper or yucca around them at the time of planting. 

There are a number of leaf eating insects which attack young 
trees; all of these may be killed or at least the plants can be protected 
so that little or no injury is done, by the use of arsenicals, prefer- 
ably an arsenate of lead: the application of this material should be 
made as soon as the work of the insects becomes noticeable. 

Apple scab is also apt to become abundant on young trees; if 
such is the case the leaves should be sprayed with Bordeaux (4-4-50) 
while bearing trees are in full bloom. Anthracnose or black spot 
canker is also very apt to become abundant and for this reason the 
young tree should receive another application of Bordeaux mixture 
early in the autumn before the leaves drop off and the fall rains be- 
gin. Spraying at this time also aids in checking apple scab. 

Aphides, especially the green aphis and red spider, attack and 



INTERCROPS— FILLERS — DRAINAGE 15 

do serious injury to many of the young trees unless kept in check 
by spraying with Black Leaf 40 and whale oil soap. 

Intercrops. 

The owners of most five and ten acre tracts find that it is ne- 
cessary to secure some return by growing crops between the rows 
of young apple trees. The principal thing to bear in mind in inter- 
cropping is to give the young apple trees sufficient space. At no time 
should a crop be grown closer than' three or four feet outside the top 
unless the same is a cover or shade crop. It is also advisable to 
grow such crops as require about the same amount of moisture. A 
frequent mistake in intercropping is made in growing strawberries 
very close to young trees. Strawberries require and use several times 
the quantity that can be utilized by young trees. When grown to- 
gether the trees must either suffer from an over-supply or the straw- 
berries must be allowed to suffer from a shortage. In cases where 
plants requiring a high percent of moisture are grown between young 
trees and irrigation is practiced, water should be applied as far from 
the young trees as advisable allowing the moisture to spread later- 
ally through the soil. 

Fillers. 

Much information is asked concerning the use of fillers. Any 
kind of tree or bush fruit may be used. In planting fillers one must 
bear in mind that all fillers must be cut out at the time the apple 
trees have become large enough to use all of the space. Unless one 
can remove the fillers, although they are producing a fair income, 
it would be best to leave out the same. 

Drainage. 

In all cases where land needs draining such work should not be 
neglected. As a usual thing tile placed at a depth of three and one- 
half to four feet gives the best service, unless conditions are such 
that an open ditch may be utilized. The distance apart that tile may 
be placed depends upon the condition as well as on the physical struct- 
ure of the soil. Tiling gives the best results when the quantity of 
water passing through the system fills the pipes nearly full. In lay- 
ing the tile the gradient should not be less than two inches to 100 
feet and should be uniform for a given distance. The tile should be 
placed snugly together and at exactly the same slope in order to pre- 
vent places in which silt or sand might collect. All lateral branches 



16 PACIFIC HORTICULTURAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL 

where joined to the main line should join at an angle of less than 
forty-five degrees and the opening should be through the top of the 
main tile. This prevents backwater from causing sand or other ma- 
terials to settle in the tile. The outlet of the entire system should 
be well protected in order to prevent clogging by dirt being tramped 
around it or by settling of sand by backwater. 

In localities where heavy snows tear off the branches of young 
trees or break them off, it becomes necessary to drive stakes by young 
and weak trees to which they are tied by a strong twine; the most 
robust trees may be protected by merely tying the lower branches 
together in a bunch. The tying should be done at two or more places 
according to the size of the tree. In cases where the trees become 
broken and it is desirable to save the torn branches, the same may 
be brought back in place and held by a string tied to some portion 
of the tree. The branches may be held rigidly in place by the use 
of galvanized shingle nails or small screws. The wounded portion 
should be either coated over with thick white lead paint or some form 
of grafting wax that will exclude moisture. 

TENDING THE BEARING ORCHARD. 

By the time the orchard comes into bearing each tree should 
have been labeled with some convenient label which will stand the 
weather for many seasons. Accurate records of the yield of trees 
in an orchard has shown that some of them never produce paying 
crops. While it is fairly easy to keep record of the behavior of the 
trees in a small orchard without labeling, it is impossible in a large 
one. The proper labeling of trees makes it very easy to keep records 
of the condition of any tree in the orchard regardless of extent by 
merely referring to it by number. This system also has an advantage 
in that individual trees can be quickly and accurately located, even 
in the center of very large tracts by noting the number of the tree. 

Clean cultivation has generally been recommended for the bear- 
ing orchard. Various systems of orchard management have shown 
that some clean cultivation is a good practice when alternated with 
shade or cover crops or both according to the condition of the trees 
and soil. 

Cover Crops. 

A cover crop of common vetch sown alone or with some form of 
grain such as rye, oats or wheat, has been recommended generally. 



COVER CROPS 17 

Sowing during the middle of August and later with a drill is the 
usual method, applying the vetch alone at the rate of 120 pounds per 
acre or 40 to 50 pounds with rye (20 pounds), wheat (40 pounds), 
or oats (30 pounds). In heavy bearing orchards where numerous 
stakes are required to support the limbs heavily laden with fruit, it 
is impossible to follow these recommendations. The sowing of the 
seed following the gathering of the fruit is usually done so late that 
little or no growth is secured from the cover crop. 

Tests conducted with various kinds of cover crops show that 
there are a large number of forms adaptable to our conditions. It is 
also evident that some of these forms are much more valuable on 
definite types of soils than some forms which have generally been 
utilized up to this time. For this reason it is advisable to give cover 
crops a much more thorough and extensive test than has been made. 
In doing this work one should bear in mind the nature of the plant, 
whether leguminous, annual or biennial, shallow or deep rooted, and 
whether the root is coarse or delicate. All plants should be studied 
with especial reference to their action upon the soil during the grow- 
ing period as well as after the same have been worked into the soil 
and are changing to humus. 

All forms of plants regardless of their natures, when worked in- 
to the soil add humus and improve the physical and chemical con- 
dition of the soil. Leguminous plants; alfalfa, bur clover, common 
clover, red and white clover, vetch, peas, beans, cow peas, soy beans, 
etc., — in addition to humus add nitrogen to the soil in all cases when 
the growth of these plants is normal. Rape, kale, turnips and sim- 
ilar plants are heavy feeders on potash and may be utilized to liber- 
ate this plant food. Other plants feeding heavily on phosphoric acid 
or lime may be utilized in the same manner. The condition of the 
trees and land determine the use of the various cover crops and the 
rotation of the same. 

Spring planting of crops to improve the condition of the soil 
usually gives more satisfactory results than autumn seeding. For 
this reason the more desirable of the cover crops should be given a 
trial as shade crops. The work with shade crops has demonstrated 
that their action is probably more effective than as cover crops. 
Shade crops aid in maintaining a more even temperature in the soil, 
and with the application of sufficient moisture so timed as to keep 
the soil uniformly moist, apparently provides conditions under which 



18 PACIFIC HORTICULTURAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL 

a lesser percent of physiological troubles of the tree and fruit appears. 

Irrigation is believed to be desirable on all types of soils. If the 
soil and subsoil are of such a nature that the water holding capacity 
is great enough to hold and supply the trees uniformly throughout 
the season, no irrigation is necessary. Large quantities and a con- 
stant supply of water are necessary for the development of the trees 
and the production of the fruit. In case the soil does not hold suf- 
ficient water to do this work, and many of them do not, the water 
must be supplied through irrigation unless the rainfall through the 
growing season is sufficient to meet the demand. 

Types of soils usually are such or the subsoil conditions such 
that it is impossible to induce the soil to hold sufficient water during 
the entire season, and yet remain in good physical condition at all 
times to allow the trees to produce a maximum crop of fruit. Con- 
ditions where soil drainage is perfect during the spring and water 
is available the remainder of the season make a more suitable locat- 
ion for growing the apple than a non-irrigated area. Water applied 
in quantities at intervals so that the moisture is kept constant in the 
same proportion throughout the season, but is not more abundant 
than admits of proper bacterial action, provides the best conditions 
for tree growth and fruit production. 

Chemical Elements. 

Through chemical analyses some fifteen elements are found in 
plants— carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, 
potassium, magnesium, iron, chlorine, aluminum, sodium and silica. 
The last four have not been proven to be essential. The remaining 
with the exception of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and cal- 
cium, are usually present in sufficient quantities to supply the plants. 
In case the growth of trees or yield of fruit is not satisfactory the 
results may be due to a lack of one or more of these four elements. 
A close study of the existing conditions or an application of one or 
more carriers of each of these four elements may give the desired 
results. 

In attempting to prove the use of any fertilizer the facts con- 
cerning the use and action of the carriers of the four named elements 
should be understood. It should also be remembered that in order to 
get results from fertilizers, it is necessary to have the soil in as good 
physical condition as possible and to also see that there is a constant 



CHEMICAL ELEMENTS 19 

supply of moisture and in proportion to the requirements of the plant. 
The time of application depends upon the nature of the fertilizer 
whether the sane becomes fixed in the soil or will leach out, imme- 
diate or slow acting. 

Nitrogen. Plants suffering from a lack of nitrogen show poor 
stem growth, the foilage is small and becomes a sickly yellow color. 
When the supply is in excess vegetative growth takes place at the 
expense of fruit and flower buds. The foliage becomes large, deep 
colored and the wood growth is greatly accellerated. Because of 
this effect it is necessary to exercise care in the use of any fertil- 
izer supplying this element. 

Nitrogen is an organic element and is largely derived from the 
air. It is the most expensive of all the fertilizer elements. It can 
be secured very cheaply, however, through use of leguminous cover 
or shade crops. The same may also be applied in nitrate of soda, 
nitrate of lime, ammonium sulphate, dried blood, etc. 

Phosphorus. This element is essential to and promotes the 
growth of the plant which without the required amount will die. 
It also overcomes or holds in check the stimulating effect of nitro- 
gen and hastens maturity. Fertilizing materials in which phos- 
phorus occurs also render soil ingredients more available for plant 
use. An application of a phosphate fertilizer usually increases the 
yield. 

Phosphorus is a chemical element occurring in phosphate rock 
and its products such as acid phosphate or super phosphate, bone 
and bone products, basic slag, etc. 

Potassium. Potassium is essential to every living cell of the 
plant. It is also connected with the formation and movements of 
products of the cell, especially starch. The flesh portions of fruit 
do not develop satisfactorily in case of a deficiency of this element. 

Being a chemical element and occurring in large proportions in 
combination with other elements the same is easily secured through 
the use of muriate or sulphate of potash, kainit or mixtures of 
these potash compounds or wood ashes. 

Calcium. This element is intimately associated with the solu- 
tion and transferrence of starch within the plant, in fact calcium 
acts as a general cell invigorator. 

Nitrate of lime, ground raw lime rock, ground shells, land 



20 PACIFIC HORTICULTURAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL 

plaster, air slaked and water slaked lime are the principal carriers 
of lime used as fertilizers. 

A promiscuous use of any form of lime should not be made un- 
til its use is determined experimentally. A large series of tests 
made by the writer indicates that lime compounds, and especially 
air slaked lime, may do marked injury. Through experiments with 
air slaked lime on apple trees it is apparently dangerous to apply 
lime on a soil poor in mechanical condition and deficient in nitrogen. 

Mixed fertilizers. There are many mixed fertilizers which are 
apparently worthy of consideration. Animal and guano fertilizers 
and mixtures in which they form a good proportion, give very good 
results in many cases. A test with such fertilizers will determine 
their economic use. 

Use of fertilizers. Chemical analysis of the soil is only valuable 
as an indicator of the proportion of a plant food element occurring 
in a soil. The analysis does not show how much of the plant food 
can be utilized by a plant. 

The use of fertilizers can only be determined through their act- 
ual use. The chemical and physical action on the soil of each of the 
various carriers of nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus and calcium 
vary with each compound. Combinations of the various compound 
also give different results than when applied alone. Through chem- 
ical analysis of apple the kinds of substances and proportions used 
have been determined. This data has been used as a basis for de- 
termining the amount of each kind of fertilizer to use in adding sub- 
stances to the soil to increase the proportions of food for the plant 
with the object of increasing the yield. The information necessary 
as a guide for the application of fertilizers follows: 

Kind of Food 

Kind of Fertilizer Pounds Nitrogen Potash Phosphoric Lime 

J Acid 

Nitrate of Soda . . 
Sulphate of Ammonia 
Dried Blood . . 
Stable Manure 
Nitrate of Lime . 
Nitrate of Potash 
Wood Ashes . . 
Carmallite . . . 
Kainit .... 
Muriate of Potash 
Sulphate of Potash 
Bone Meal . . . 
Acid Phosphate . 



50 to 100 16 

40 to 80 20 

80 to 160 10 1 

1500 to 3000 2 1 

50 to 100 13 25 

50 to 100 13 

1000 to 2000 5 i.5 

13 
12.5 
50 
50 
300 to 600 .. 20 44 

250 to 500 12 



SUMMER AND WINTER PRUNING — TOP WORKING 21 

Kind of Food 

Kind of Fertilizer Pounds Nitrogen Potash Phosphoric Lime 

Acid 



Tankage 

Basic Slag .... 
Pulverized Lime Stone 
Caustic Lime . . . 
Air-Slaked Lime . . 
Hydrated Lime . . 
Land Plaster . . . 



300 to 600 6 .. 10 

300 to 600 . 20 44 

500 to 1500 

500 to 1500 

500 to 1500 

500 to 1500 

100 to 150 



(Ed. Note — For further information on Chemical Elements along this line see "Soil Fertility and 
Permanent Agriculture'* by Hopkins; also see article in this course on "Soil Fertility" by H. V. Tartar 
and to those desiring a larger work use "Soils" by Prof. Hilgard. 

At the time the orchard comes into bearing it is supposed that 
the trees have been properly trained. It is to be remembered that 
at this time that the trees should be pruned lightly during both winter 
and summer. Winter pruning should consist of slight heading in 
and the removing of crossing, weak or diseased branches. Summer 
pruning, which should be done during the latter part of July and early 
August, should consist very largely of heading back in order to in- 
duce the trees to set strong fruit buds. Heavy cutting during the 
winter or summer has a tendency to throw the tree out of bearing 
although heavy winter pruning has by far a more detrimental effect 
than summer pruning. Winter pruning, since branches are without 
leaves at this time, does not make the change in appearance in the 
tree that the same amount of pruning would do during the sum- 
mer, for this reason one is apt to cut off enough to influence detri- 
menatally the setting of the fruit. 

By the time the trees are old enough to bear heavy crops it will 
be necessary to brace them during the bearing period. This is ac- 
complished by placing brace sticks at convenient places along the 
branches or it may be done by carrying the weight of the branches 
on ropes attached to a central mast, consisting of a two by four or 
smaller sapling pine or fir, standing five or more feet taller than the 
tree. A more permenant system is to place galvanized screw eyes 
in the larger branches attaching them with galvanized wire to a ring 
acting as a swivel for all the brace wires. 

Top Working. Many people have discovered, at the time the 
trees come into bearing, they had planted undesirable varieties. This 
has necessitated top working the trees. In top grafting, while some 
cut low on the tree removing practically all the main branches, this 
method has proven less desirable than higher cutting only cutting 



22 PACIFIC HORTICULTURAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL 

the branches when they are three inches or smaller in diameter. 
In these stubs two to four scions are inserted, the desirable one be- 
ing retained after it has produced a desirable growth to show that 
the scion will do. Some recommend removing the entire top of the 
tree previous to top working. While in many cases this practice 
proves to be a good one, leaving a portion of the top very often gives 
better results. A portion of the top thus allowed to grow provides 
an outlet to water and plant foods taken up by a strong root system, 
thus preventing as great a shock to the root system as when the en- 
tire top is removed. 

Thinning. Under suitable conditions for the setting of fruit, it 
oftentimes becomes necessary to thin the young fruit following the 
June drop. In cases where proper thinning has been done from the 
earliest date of bearing fairly average annual crops are obtained by 
thinning all the fruit from half the spurs allowing the remainder to 
bear one or tivo apples. The only serious objection to leaving two 
apples on a spur is the formation of suitable place where the codling 
moth may enter the fruit without much difficulty. The plan where 
an apple is left on each spur does not present this objection. Red 
apples are allowed to color more perfectly than they can where two 
fruits touch, an objection not met with on yellow or light colored 
varieties. Leaving two apples on a spur has an advantage also in se- 
curing heavier yields from light bearing trees or during light pro- 
ducing seasons. Both of these systems of thinning have their ad- 
vocates and are practicable. Thinning should be done by the use of 
light pruning shears made especially for this purpose. 
Diseases and Insect Pests. 

The diseases and insect pests may be divided into the so-called 
physiological disorders, bacterial diseases, fungus diseases and in- 
sect pests. 

The diseases known as winter injury or rosette is becoming more 
abundant and destructive. This disease occurs on one-year-old bud- 
ded or grafted stock in the nurseries and on trees of all ages and va- 
rieties presenting all sorts of degrees of injury. As a usual thing 
the disease appears in connection with some specific tree trouble or 
is present on trees grown under very uncongenial conditions. So 
little is known concerning it, little more than cautioning people to 
take care not to plant infested trees can be recommended at this time. 
Should the disease appear in bearing trees the land should be given 



BALDWIN SPOT, DRY ROT, FIRE BLIGHT 23 

proper management to put it in first class physical condition. The 
trees should be stimulated by the use of a fertilizer and all of the dis- 
eased branches removed. During pruning, cutting back should be 
well below the lowest point of the discoloration or spotting of the 
tissues. One who does not observe this precaution will accomplish 
little or nothing through the pruning method. 

Baldwin spot, dry rot, etc., are the terms used to designate the 
presence of dark colored groups of cells occurring in some portion of 
the flesh of the fruit. This trouble was very abundant during the 
season 1912 in many apple orchards, in fact, it was not uncommon in 
every variety grown under certain conditions. This trouble is a 
physiological one and is induced by uncongenial food and climatic 
conditions. Very little is known concerning this disease. An inspect- 
ion of a large number of orchards, studies on the effect of various 
forms of fertilizers on the diseased trees and good cultural methods 
shows that the trouble does not occur in orchards where the temper- 
ature of the soil is held fairly constant and a uniform supply of moist- 
ure is given the tree during the growing season. It would seem ad- 
visable to stimulate weak trees by the use of commercial fertilizers, 
barn yard manure or compost, to give the trees clean cultivation un- 
til rapid growing weather in the spring, at which time the ground 
should be sown to some quick growing shade crop, after which, suf- 
ficent moisture should be given at frequent intervals to supply the 
cover crop and trees, and at the same time allow proper bacterial 
action and the liberation of plant food within the soil. 

Among the diseases, fire blight or pome blight is the most dreaded 
of all those induced by organisms. This disease is caused by a bac- 
terium which lives in diseased bark during the winter. With the 
advent of growing weather gum containing large numbers of bac- 
teria ooze from some of these cankers. Bees and other insects feed 
upon this gum as well as upon the nectar during blooming time. 
Bacteria are thus transferred from the hold-over cankers to the 
blossoms in which place they work in the nectaries, finally attack- 
ing and killing the spurs and branches. The disease will usually 
continue to work in the branches until the tree is dead, continuing 
for several seasons in some cases before the host succumbs. After 
the disease begins to run in the branches the only method of con- 
trol is to cut out all the diseased cankers or branches. In cutting, 
the branches should be removed about a foot below the lowest point 



24 PACIFIC HORTICULTURAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL 

of discoloration. If cankers are trimmed out the bark should be 
cut well from above and below since the disease spreads most rap- 
idly lengthwise with the branches especially upward. During prun- 
ing all tools should be thoroughly saturated with corrosive substance 
(one to one thousand parts of water) often enough to keep them 
wet. Every pruned surface must be swabbed with the antiseptic. 
All the cutting should be burned at once. 

Crown Gall. This disease may appear in several forms, the 
two principal ones being either a large wart or a group of abnormal 
roots appearing like a brush and known as the hairy root form. The 
hairy root form of crown gall is apparently more injurious and 
dangerous than the gall form. For this reason one should familiar- 
ize himself with the hairy root form so that he can easily recognize 
normal and diseased roots. 

Insect Pests. 

Every person intrusted with the care of fruit trees should be- 
come familiar with the few facts which are so essential to the pro- 
per and effective control of all forms of insects. For the conven- 
ience of the apple grower we may divide the pests into tivo large 
groups — those that cheiv and swallow their food and those that suck 
the juices of the plant. A careful observer can easily determine 
the kind of damage an insect is doing and can then apply the right 
kind of spray to control the pest. The stomach poisons utilized at 
the present time are largely arsenicals. Arsenate of lead has proven 
to be the most serviceable since this compound does the least in- 
jury to the tree and fruit and controls the pests if the same has been 
properly applied. For all insects that suck their food contact sprays 
must be used. Of this class there are several, the kind used depend- 
ing on the insect to be controlled and the kinds of sprays with which 
the same is to be mixed if a mixture is to be used. Lime sulphur, 
nicotine solution, and kerosene emulsion are the most used of the 
contact sprays. 

The most common of the insect pest of the apple is the codling 
moth. The fact that the insect passes the winter in the worm stage, 
then changes to a chrysalis, from which the adult comes forth to 
lay the eggs, is known to every one. 

All orchardists must admit that the number of applications of 
spray needed to keep this pest under control should be timely and 
thorough. The number of applications generally cannot be agreed 



INSECT PESTS ■ 25 

upon. The writer recommends three sprayings. The first and most 
important is the calyx spray and should be applied without fail. 
The next in importance is the spray which should be applied just 
as the second brood of worms begin to hatch, which usually occurs 
between the 1st and 15th of August. An application just preced- 
ing the emergence of the first brood of worms is necessary in all 
cases where there are enough to warrant spraying. The calyx 
spray should be applied using a driving spray nozzle while the 
other applications may be applied with a mist spray type if so de- 
sired. All the applications must be thorough and at the rate of one 
to two pounds of arsenate of lead to each fifty gallons of water. 

The aphides attacking the apple are the green, brown and wooly 
species. All are killed by contact sjjrays. Black leaf 40 and soap 
applied just before the blossoms open gives the best results of all 
applications made toward the control of the pests. Spraying should 
be thorough and the spray driven into all the crevices in the bark 
and limbs of the trees so that all exposed pests other than the 
aphides appearing on the tree at this time may be killed. 

The leaf hopper is becoming more abundant each year. In some 
orchards the damage amounts to considerable and steps are being 
taken to control the pest through spraying. Since the eggs are de- 
posited in the bark of the tree during the autumn one must observe 
the emergence of the nymphs as they make their appearance early 
in June of the following year. Observations should be made each 
day until the time the eggs have hatched. The spraying should 
then be done before any of the forms produce wings. Black leaf 
40 and soap gives the best satisfaction. It must be applied thor- 
oughly and only on the under surface since all the insects are feed- 
ing on the lower side. In some experiments kerosene emulsion gave 
perfect results. The emulsion was diluted 1 to 16 parts of water. 
Care must be taken to have the emulsion made perfectly or damage 
to the foliage may occur. 

During the past two years the red spider has done considerable 
damage to the foliage. The first precaution to be taken is the band- 
ing of the trees with a tangle foot to catch the mites as they crawl 
up the tree during the spring, many of them hibernating in the 
ground, under flakes of dead bark, fallen leaves and other materials 
that may afford a shelter. It is very hard to kill the eggs and for 
this reason it is advisable to spray as soon as the first few mites ap- 



26 PACIFIC HORTICULTURAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL 

pear and before they have an opportunity to spin webs and lay eggs. 

The apple thrips made its appearance for the first time in some 
of the apple orchards. In case spray is applied to control the aphides 
no further spraying should be necessary but in case of poor results 
black leaf 40 should be applied with the calyx spray for the codling 
moth. 

The San Jose Scale is so well known it is sufficient to say that 
spraying with lime-sulphur during the sqring just before the buds 
begin to swell will eradicate the pest provided the work has been 
done thoroughly and the spray is of the required strength. 

Crown rot of the apple tree caused by Amillaria Mellea is one 
of the serious tree diseases which has not become well enough known 
for people to appreciate how destructive the same may become. 
Very frequently it happens that a tree is beyond repair by the time 
one is aware that anything is wrong. Careful watching and timely 
work is absolutely necessary. As soon as the autumn rains begin 
many of the infested trees may be located by the presence of one or 
more brown mushrooms attached to the collar of the tree just below 
the ground. Each tree should be marked at once as the mushrooms 
decay very quickly. Early during the autumn remove the earth 
from around the crowns of the trees and if the bark is dead all the 
dead portions should be cut out and the wound left open so that it 
may dry for two or three days after which the exposed wood should 
be coated with thick Bordeaux mixture. It is advisable to leave 
the hole open around the tree until later. It is suggested that the 
bases of all these trees should be coated with a layer of a mixture of 
equal volumes of dry pulverized limestone and sulphur after which 
the dirt may be put in place. The preliminary work has given good 
results and the suggestion is made that this be given a very thorough 
trial in order to determine the effeciency of the treatment. Thick 
bordeaux mixture applied in the same manner will give good results. 

Anthracnose is easily controlled through spraying with Bor- 
deaux mixture or lime sulphur following the gathering of the fruit a nd 
preceding the fall rains. Many times it is impossible to do the 
spraying during autumn owing to a rush of work. In sections where 
the rainfall is light during the spring and summer it is possible to do 
the work in the spring previous to the unfolding of the leaves. The 
spray applied at this time remains on the tree and is as effective as 
an autumn application. In sections where the autumn rains begin 



APPLE SCAB AND POWDERY MILDEW 27 

early, and all of the time is needed for work in the orchard other 
than spraying, preliminary tests with a Bordeaux petroleum mixt- 
ure gives the desired results. This spray has the advantage of be- 
ing a combined fungicide and insecticide and at the same time is 
effective through long periods of time since the same will not wash off. 

Apple scab is the most perplexing of the fungus diseases of the 
apple. Since the fungus causing the disease winters in the fallen 
leaves it is good practice to destroy as many of the fallen leaves as 
possible by plowing, etc. An autumn application of winter strength 
Bordeaux mixture before the leaves drop in autumn does much good 
unless the climatic conditions the following year are favorable for 
a rapid spread especially late during the summer or at picking time. 
In orchards where the disease appears with regularity season after 
season it is perhaps the best plan to spray with Bordeaux mixture 
(4-4-50) just before the blossoms open. A second spraying with lime 
and sulphur (1-32) may immediately follow the dropping of the calyx. 
Should the fruit be of some size and the conditions otherwise un- 
favorable some spray injury from this application may be expected. 
After the apple has grown to some size and has become smooth ap- 
plications of either lime and sulphur or Bordeaux do not injure the 
fruit although the residue of the spray on red varieties prevents 
them from coloring uniformly. 

Powdery Mildew is not to be considered a very serious disease 
although under some conditions the fungus, if not checked, dwarfs 
the leaves and stems and severely injures the crop. A thorough 
spraying with sulphide of iron keeps mildew in check. This spray 
is a valuable one since the mixture aids in the control of apple scab 
and various insect pests such as the mites. 

The present prices for fruit makes it advisable to reduce the cost 
of production. Up to the present time little attention has been paid 
to working out a spraying system that can be followed without in- 
terference with the routine work of the orchard and that not only 
keeps the pests under control and at a less cost but does the trees 
and fruit less injury. The following spraying calendar may be ex- 
amined with some profit as the scheme of spraying limits the sprays 
to four or five per year: 



28 



PACIFIC HORTICULTURAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL 



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FACTS CONCERNING SPRAYING 29 

In applying sprays one must bear in mind the following facts: 

Fungus diseases are prevented by coating the plant to keep the 
parasite from getting a foothold. Diseased plants seldom can be 
cured, since the parasites. are internal. Any spray strong enough 
to kill an internal parasite would kill the host. 

Insects either chew and swallow their food or suck out the juices 
of the plant. Stomach poisons will kill those that eat parts of 
plants, but contact sprays must be used to kill those that live on 
the juices of the plants. 

Only parts of plants coated with spray are protected from fun- 
gus diseases and chewing insects. Contact sprays are only effective 
when they come in contact with an insect. 

Be sure to use the right kind of spray and to apply the same 
at the right time. Unless the work is done at the right time, poor 
or no results will be secured. 

Use plenty of spray, and apply the same with good pressure. 
During the season the leaves are off the trees spray with sufficient 
force to drive the solution behind the buds and into every crevice 
and angle of the tree. Application during the spring and summer 
must be thorough. Thorough spraying requires the right type of 
nozzle. Coat the leaves and fruit as may be necessary to combat 
the pests effectively. Thorough spraying with the right spray at 
the right time is cheap orchard insurance. „ 

Use an 8 or 10-foot spray rod and an elbow coupling to set the 
nozzle at an angle of 45 degrees. 

Do not spray unless you know the reason for doing the work. 

Make a study of each fungus or insect that is causing you trouble 
in the orchard. 

GATHERING AND STORING THE FRUIT. 

The kinds of ladders, picking utensils, and the management of 
the picking crews are seldom agreed upon by any of the more suc- 
cessful apple growers. Each person has worked out a system sat- 
isfactory to himself and one which works out very nicely with the 
conditions that must be met. The time of picking the fruit is an 
important point and one which every one should understand. At 
the present time the apples are usually gathered at the time the 
stem separates from the spur by giving the apple a backward twist- 
ing motion. Proper maturity at the time of picking is much more 



30 PACIFIC HORTICULTURAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL 

important than formerly supposed. There is a tendency to allow 
some varieties, and especially the red ones to hang to secure color, 
much to the shortenitg of the life of the apple. Care must be taken 
to prevent over-ripening as this one factor is largely responsible 
for the poor keeping qualities of some of the best appearing apples. 
A very serious mistake and one that is frequently made is to allow 
the fruit to stand in boxes in the orchard often-times exposed to the 
direct rays of the sun for a period of two or three days. The alter- 
nate cooling and heating of the fruit causes it to ripen very rapidly. 
Apples may be left standing in the field during the night in order 
to allow them to cool thoroughly, but they should be taken to the 
packing shed early enough the following morning so that the tem- 
perature of the fruit does not begin to rise. Delayed storage frequently 
shortens the life of the fruit several days, weeks or even months. It 
should be the rule to get the fruit from the trees to the warehouse 
in as short a time as possible with the possible exception of taking 
advantage of the night cooling of the fruit. 

Dividing the fruit into the grades is a very hard task. There is a 
tendency to attempt to place the fruit in the grade above where it belongs 
than in a lower grade. The results of the grading will be the best 
index of the ability of the sorter and oftentimes shows very plainly 
the disposition of the grower. An honest man puts up an honest 
pack. 

When it comes to grading the fruit uniform grades are only se- 
cured through cooperative work. 

Market conditions require careful grading of the fruit. The ideal 
system is where the fruit is brought to the warehouse in the orchard 
boxes to be graded by a crew working under the supervision of one 
man. In this way the grading may become more uniform. The 
grading will vary greatly and especially toward the close of the day 
when the crew is tired. As a guide to the grading crew each per- 
son should be given a set of brief rules to guide him, also taught 
the various injuries that occur on the apple and how to recognize 
them. 

Grading may be greatly facilitated by the use of machinery. 

Where facilities admit storing the fruit should be placed in cold 
storage loose in the orchard boxes and packed out when needed for 
shipment. As actually handled, the fruit is picked, sorted and 
packed out at once. When this method is followed the apples should 



STUDY APPLE GROWING 31 

be placed in common or cold storage at once following packing. 

Storing the apple is very important. In common storage, in 
case the house is built for ventilating, the ventilation should be ad- 
justed at the time the temperature outside is lower than within the 
house to allow the cold air to enter. Before the temperature of the 
air begins to raise, the house should be closed tightly so as to hold 
the cold air in the room during the hotter portion of the day. 

STUDY APPLE-GROWING. 

An immense amount of information, much of it new and ap- 
plicable to your work, is being published by the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture, State Experiment Stations, and other in- 
stitutes, as well as by individuals. 

To keep in touch with important and new literature: 

1. Write the Pacific Horticultural Correspondence School for a 
list of the books and pamphlets that contain information of value 
to you in your work. 

2. Secure a copy of the Yearbook of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture from a Senator, Representative or Delegate in 
Congress. 

3. Farmers' bulletins, circulars and other similar publications 
written in a manner in which they are of use to the farmer can also 
be had from senators, representatives and delegates in congress. 

4. At the close of each month a monthly list of publications is 
issued giving full information with regard to the contents and how 
to obtain the publications of the department for the month is pre- 
pared for distribution. This circular is sent regularly to all who 
have their names placed on the mailing list to receive it. 

5. Secure all the publications of your state experiment station. 
Each station has a mailing list of all persons who desire the pub- 
lications as they appear from time to time. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




000 929 691 8 • 



